[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
When will John come?
On the basis of this kind of analysis and on evidence from second-
language acquisition studies, Pienemann and Johnston (1987) have made a
sequenced list of structures. The sequence of the items in the list is the same
as the sequence in which second-language learners learn them.
46 Principles
The sequence of the structures in this list is not simply a result of the
number of arrangements required but also the type of rearrangements (initial
to final and vice versa, internal to final and vice versa, sentence internal
operations).
Pienemann has also looked at this sequence with classroom second-
language learners. His conclusion is that classroom second-language learn-
ers follow a fixed order of stages in their acquisition of L2 grammatical forms
and, even more importantly, that these forms can only be learned in a par-
ticular order (Pienemann et al. 1988: 220). In his later work, Pienemann
(1998) developed the Processability Theory in an attempt to formally pre-
dict which structures can be processed by learners at a given level of
development.
The Teachability Hypothesis simply states the course of second language devel-
opment cannot be altered by factors external to the learner. In this statement the
course of second language development refers to the list of prerequisites as
outlined in Table 4.2. Factors external to the learner refers mainly to teach-
ing. So the Teachability Hypothesis says that teaching cannot change the
sequence in which the structures are learned. As explained in the previous
section, this is because a structure learned at one stage is a necessary pre-
requisite for later stages. However, teaching can have an effect if it occurs when
learners are at the right stage to learn the particular item which is being taught.
Let us look in more detail at the implications of this hypothesis for teaching
and curriculum design:
1 A course which does not present the items in this sequence will result in
teaching which has little effect.
Table 4.2 Structures in order of acquisition
Structure Example
1. single words, formulae how are you?
2. SVO, SVO? *The tea is hot?
3. ADVERB PREPOSING *Yesterday I work
4. DO FRONTING Does he work?
5. TOPICALIZATION This I like
6. NEG + V(don t) *He don t eat meat
7. PSEUDO-INVERSION Where is my purse?
8. YES/NO-INVERSION *Have he seen it?
9. PARTICLE SHIFT *He turn the radio on
10. V- TO -V We like to sing
11. 3RD-SG-S She comes home
12. DO-2ND They did not buy anything
13. AUX-2ND Where has he seen you?
14. ADV-LY They spoke gently
15. Q-TAG It s expensive, isn t it?
16. ADV-VP He has often heard this
Principles 47
2 It is important to know what stage in the sequence a learner is at
because, to be effective, teaching has to be directed at the next stage.
Ellis (1985) includes most of these ideas in his 11 hypotheses about second-
language acquisition. Research by Eckman, Bell and Nelson (1988) con-
cludes that the order of grammatical items in the sequence need not be finely
detailed for teaching purposes. They found that by teaching relative clauses
in one position in the sentence this learning was generalised to other
positions.
The importance of all this research is that it provides a theoretical, logical
and testable basis for syllabus construction, and that it indicates an effective,
though restricted, role for teaching. The research is still ongoing (Gold-
schneider and DeKeyser, 2005), with continuing debate about, for example,
the influence of first-language background on acquisition order (Izumi and
Isahara, 2005). We still have only an elementary list of sequenced grammat-
ical items to guide teaching and do not have easily applied tests to indicate
the learners stage in the sequence of development (Pienemann et al., 1988).
7 The course should help the learners to make the most effective
use of previous knowledge.
Much of the previous knowledge that is brought to second-language learn-
ing comes from the learners first language. The effect of this knowledge on
second-language learning has been a matter of debate with some arguing
that the first language has a major effect on second-language learning (Lado,
1957; Ringbom, 1987) and others arguing that second-language learning
like first-language learning occurs without the influence of other languages.
Part of the reason for the debate has been that second-language learning
occurs in a variety of circumstances. Where the language is learned as a
foreign language with little opportunity for contact and use outside the
classroom, the effect of the first language is more noticeable. Where the
classroom is only one of a range of sources for second-language input as with
second-language learning of English in countries such as New Zealand,
Australia, Britain and the United States, first-language influence is less
noticeable.
There is plenty of evidence however that aspects of the first language can
help learning. This help can occur at all levels within the language, with
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and discourse. It can also occur with
aspects of language skill and with content knowledge.
The principle is most obvious in relation to vocabulary. A splendid
example of this occurs in the course book for learning Italian for English-
speaking learners entitled Teach Yourself Italian (L. Vellaccio and M. Elston,
Hodder and Stoughton, 1986, pp. 6 7). From the earliest lessons of the
course each lesson contains a reading text in Italian which is at a level far
48 Principles
beyond the material presented for spoken production. The vocabulary of
the reading text, however, has been carefully chosen so that it is cognate with
English vocabulary. As a result the reading is easily manageable. A few ques-
tions at the beginning of the text are designed to stimulate relevant know-
ledge. Here is an example.
Before reading this passage, look at the questions carefully, since they
will give you some clues about the subject matter.
1 What sort of activities can an Italian engage in when he goes to a
square?
2 What buildings might you find around the square?
3 Which Italian cities are mentioned as famous for their squares?
4 Which square has fountains on either side of it?
5 What is noteworthy about the square in Florence?
La piazza
In Italia la piazza rappresenta una parte integrante della vita, e una bella
status o una bella fontana contribuiscono spesso alla sua bellezza. Per
un caffe, per un appuntamento, per una discussione o per un po di
musica, un italiano va generalmente in piazza dove c e spesso un teatro
famoso, un monumento, una status importante, un bar o un ristorante
con un orchestra. Famosa in tutto il mondo e Piazza San Pietro a [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl szkicerysunki.xlx.pl
When will John come?
On the basis of this kind of analysis and on evidence from second-
language acquisition studies, Pienemann and Johnston (1987) have made a
sequenced list of structures. The sequence of the items in the list is the same
as the sequence in which second-language learners learn them.
46 Principles
The sequence of the structures in this list is not simply a result of the
number of arrangements required but also the type of rearrangements (initial
to final and vice versa, internal to final and vice versa, sentence internal
operations).
Pienemann has also looked at this sequence with classroom second-
language learners. His conclusion is that classroom second-language learn-
ers follow a fixed order of stages in their acquisition of L2 grammatical forms
and, even more importantly, that these forms can only be learned in a par-
ticular order (Pienemann et al. 1988: 220). In his later work, Pienemann
(1998) developed the Processability Theory in an attempt to formally pre-
dict which structures can be processed by learners at a given level of
development.
The Teachability Hypothesis simply states the course of second language devel-
opment cannot be altered by factors external to the learner. In this statement the
course of second language development refers to the list of prerequisites as
outlined in Table 4.2. Factors external to the learner refers mainly to teach-
ing. So the Teachability Hypothesis says that teaching cannot change the
sequence in which the structures are learned. As explained in the previous
section, this is because a structure learned at one stage is a necessary pre-
requisite for later stages. However, teaching can have an effect if it occurs when
learners are at the right stage to learn the particular item which is being taught.
Let us look in more detail at the implications of this hypothesis for teaching
and curriculum design:
1 A course which does not present the items in this sequence will result in
teaching which has little effect.
Table 4.2 Structures in order of acquisition
Structure Example
1. single words, formulae how are you?
2. SVO, SVO? *The tea is hot?
3. ADVERB PREPOSING *Yesterday I work
4. DO FRONTING Does he work?
5. TOPICALIZATION This I like
6. NEG + V(don t) *He don t eat meat
7. PSEUDO-INVERSION Where is my purse?
8. YES/NO-INVERSION *Have he seen it?
9. PARTICLE SHIFT *He turn the radio on
10. V- TO -V We like to sing
11. 3RD-SG-S She comes home
12. DO-2ND They did not buy anything
13. AUX-2ND Where has he seen you?
14. ADV-LY They spoke gently
15. Q-TAG It s expensive, isn t it?
16. ADV-VP He has often heard this
Principles 47
2 It is important to know what stage in the sequence a learner is at
because, to be effective, teaching has to be directed at the next stage.
Ellis (1985) includes most of these ideas in his 11 hypotheses about second-
language acquisition. Research by Eckman, Bell and Nelson (1988) con-
cludes that the order of grammatical items in the sequence need not be finely
detailed for teaching purposes. They found that by teaching relative clauses
in one position in the sentence this learning was generalised to other
positions.
The importance of all this research is that it provides a theoretical, logical
and testable basis for syllabus construction, and that it indicates an effective,
though restricted, role for teaching. The research is still ongoing (Gold-
schneider and DeKeyser, 2005), with continuing debate about, for example,
the influence of first-language background on acquisition order (Izumi and
Isahara, 2005). We still have only an elementary list of sequenced grammat-
ical items to guide teaching and do not have easily applied tests to indicate
the learners stage in the sequence of development (Pienemann et al., 1988).
7 The course should help the learners to make the most effective
use of previous knowledge.
Much of the previous knowledge that is brought to second-language learn-
ing comes from the learners first language. The effect of this knowledge on
second-language learning has been a matter of debate with some arguing
that the first language has a major effect on second-language learning (Lado,
1957; Ringbom, 1987) and others arguing that second-language learning
like first-language learning occurs without the influence of other languages.
Part of the reason for the debate has been that second-language learning
occurs in a variety of circumstances. Where the language is learned as a
foreign language with little opportunity for contact and use outside the
classroom, the effect of the first language is more noticeable. Where the
classroom is only one of a range of sources for second-language input as with
second-language learning of English in countries such as New Zealand,
Australia, Britain and the United States, first-language influence is less
noticeable.
There is plenty of evidence however that aspects of the first language can
help learning. This help can occur at all levels within the language, with
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and discourse. It can also occur with
aspects of language skill and with content knowledge.
The principle is most obvious in relation to vocabulary. A splendid
example of this occurs in the course book for learning Italian for English-
speaking learners entitled Teach Yourself Italian (L. Vellaccio and M. Elston,
Hodder and Stoughton, 1986, pp. 6 7). From the earliest lessons of the
course each lesson contains a reading text in Italian which is at a level far
48 Principles
beyond the material presented for spoken production. The vocabulary of
the reading text, however, has been carefully chosen so that it is cognate with
English vocabulary. As a result the reading is easily manageable. A few ques-
tions at the beginning of the text are designed to stimulate relevant know-
ledge. Here is an example.
Before reading this passage, look at the questions carefully, since they
will give you some clues about the subject matter.
1 What sort of activities can an Italian engage in when he goes to a
square?
2 What buildings might you find around the square?
3 Which Italian cities are mentioned as famous for their squares?
4 Which square has fountains on either side of it?
5 What is noteworthy about the square in Florence?
La piazza
In Italia la piazza rappresenta una parte integrante della vita, e una bella
status o una bella fontana contribuiscono spesso alla sua bellezza. Per
un caffe, per un appuntamento, per una discussione o per un po di
musica, un italiano va generalmente in piazza dove c e spesso un teatro
famoso, un monumento, una status importante, un bar o un ristorante
con un orchestra. Famosa in tutto il mondo e Piazza San Pietro a [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]